Virchand Raghavji Gandhi (1864-1901) had many firsts to his credit. He was the first
celebrated Jaina to have graduated with honours from Elphinstone College,
Bombay (Mumbai) in 1880, the first authorized Jaina plenipotentiary
to a global religious conclave in 1893 , the first to win admirers and
adherents to his faith outside India, and the first non-Hindu to defend
Hinduism in America and Europe. He was much ahead of his times and explained the fundamental articles of the Jaina faith in the living language of science and logic. His
interpretation of Anekantavada –the philosophy which says that each ssertion though seemingly contradictory, belongs to
the domain of possibility - brought the quintessential element of Jaina metaphysics to the global
fora.
He could juxtapose, assimilate, and
harmonise different religious standpoints on the praxis of deeper spirituality. His explanation of the
gospel of Ahimsa - non-violence -in scientific idiom, appealed alike to the
intellect, the heart and the soul, and
in that respect, he was a precursor to Mahatma Gandhi(1869-1948).
He was among the first few 19th
century Indians to delineate the exploitative aspects of the British Raj marked
by racial discrimination, destruction of Indian agriculture and handicraft
industries, impoverishment of the subaltern classes, misuse and drainage of India’s wealth to Britain, and the abolition of import duties to help the traders of Liverpool and
Manchester. He spoke against the imposition of 200% tax on the manufacture of
salt ‘to maintain a costly government’, a somber presage of the Salt Satyagraha
of Mahatma Gandhi in 1930. He had the
courage to point out that the British Raj
had legitimized the vice of drinking and raised revenue from the liquor trade,
which the native rulers never did.
He resented that the government spent lavishly
to assert its political hegemony by declaring Queen Victoria as the Empress of India in 1877, but it did
little to save more than five million people from starvation and
epidemics during the
famine of 1896-97. He described Englishmen
as conquerors who laid claim to ‘extra-territorial
right throughout India.’
Yet his patriotism was not insular as he
stood for amity and cooperation among different nations at cultural and
economic levels. Despite his
reservations about the ethical
dimensions of the British export,
he praised the British manufacturers for understanding the Indian economic
milieu and the requirements of people. He
was the first Jaina to speak on trade relations between India and America and to guide the latter on what to
export at an international meet organized by W.P.Wilson, Director of
Philadelphia Commercial Museum.1
Born on August 25, 1864 in an
affluent Jaina family of Mahuva, a small
town on the Arabian sea coast, and
educated at Bhavnagar (Gujarat) and in Bombay
(Mumbai), Virchand Raghavji Gandhi
became the youngest Honorary Secretary
of Shri Jaina Association of India at the age of twenty one, due to his keen interest and
involvement in the administration of charitable and religious trusts. A towering intellectual, visionary, orator , writer,
and social reformer, he was a polyglot who knew fourteen languages and was
conversant both with rational western
thought and traditional Indian wisdom.
He knew as much about Jainism in which he had been trained in a Jaina monastery
by Shrimad Vijayanandsurishwar (Muni Atmarama
ji) whom he represented at the Chicago Parliament, as with the fundamentals
of Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity and
Islam. He was well versed in history, philosophy, psychology, science and mysticism,
and quoted profusely from scholarly works. He could address large audiences
with rare confidence and speak sometime for hours elaborating on a subject.
Just as Swami Vivekananda founded the
Vedanta Society of New York
and Anagarika Dharmapala, the
Maha Bodhi Society of America, Virchand Raghavji Gandhi founded three institutions in America - Gandhi Philosophical Society, School of Oriental Philosophy, and Society for the
Education of women of India.
Virchand Raghavji Gandhi synergized in
him, the erudition of Protap Chunder Mozoomdar ( 1840-1905), the sobriety of Hewavitarne Dharmapala (1864-1933), the philosophic
outlook of G.N. Chakravarti, the sensitivity
of Balwant Bhau Nagarkar
(1858-1926) and the patriotic zeal and prophetic vision of Swami Vivekananda
(1863-1902) - all of whom represented
their respective faiths at the World’s first Parliament of Religions
held at Chicago in 1893.
AT PARLIAMENT OF
RELIGIONS
Virchand Raghavji Gandhi created a great impression on the Chicago Parliament by his refined manners, vast learning, and command
of the English language. Although, in physical appearance, he was not as
handsome as Swami Vivekananda, his tranquil
and austere figure in an immaculate Kurta – upper garment - white shawl
-over the shoulders and traditional turban
with golden border, his friendly disposition and gentle smile attracted one and
all. His opening and closing
addresses (September 11 and 27) presentation on Jainism (September 25) as well as his off-the-cuff observations during
discussions, were greatly appreciated.2 He delineated the intricate
philosophical points through metaphors,
narratives, fables and quotes.
In interactive and representational
argument he was no less eloquent in the Parliament than Swami Vivekananda, Hewavitarne
Dharmapala, Balwant Bhau Nagarkar or Narsimhachari, but he never used raw rhetoric
to overawe his opponent. While presenting counterview or censuring the
illiberal, he did not cross the limits
of decency, and thereby won the respect
of all. The American Press lauded his
simplicity, scholarship, non-sectarian outlook
and breadth of vision. The Boston
Evening Transcript dated September 30, 1893, wrote : ‘He has a refined and
intellectual countenance, a bright eye and something in his manner that suggests cosmopolitan
influences.’
When evangelist George T. Pentecost of
London concluded his address on
September 24,1893 by saying that ‘there were two or three oriental bubbles
which have been floating over Chicago for the last two or three weeks’3 alluding to Swami Vivekananda, H. Dharmapala,
Narsimhachari and other delegates from India, it was Virchand Raghavji Gandhi who gave a befitting reply. ‘The oriental bubbles might yet be found
heavier than certain bloated balloons of self conceit which were temporarily
obscuring a large portion of the horizon.’ 4 The Chicago Daily
Tribune dated September 26, 1893
reported that the audience was sympathetic, and ‘applauded loudly almost every point he
scored.’
EXPONENT
OF JAINISM
Jainism is an outlook of life, a mode of
understanding the world, a way to the efflorescence of the soul, as well as a
living faith. In its classical mould, the word ‘Jaina’ is more of an adjective
than a noun, as it derives from the word jina
which means he who has conquered
himself.
The history of Jainism goes back to the
beginning of time. Its historical evolution, like that
of other faiths, has been the result of interaction between a number
of factors, forces, ideas and puissant
souls, sometime between parallel or even
rival schools of thought. Jainism is
neither the heir or the rebel child of Hinduism as Christianity is of Judaism,
nor a reactionary religious movement.
The Supreme Truths in the Jaina faith were revealed to the twenty-four tirthankaras - ‘ford-finders’ - those who help one to cross the ocean of
worldly existence’ - at different stages
of man’s evolution. Deriving from the Shramana ('self reliant') tradition which is many millennia old,
Jainism focuses on the purification, elevation and flowering of the
human being - an idea which is close to the
Mundaka Upanishad(I.1.5), which says that
true knowledge comes not through
pedagogy but through experience.
While Hermann Jacobi (788-820 CE) introduced Jainism to the West through his
translation of a few Jaina classical
texts both into German and English, Virchand Raghavji Gandhi may be called the first able exponent of Jainism in America
and Europe, who spread its aroma
through his insightful talks, discourses
and writings. He presented Jainism as an ethico-metaphysical system which lays down
that moral power is superior to physical power; renunciation is not escapism
but the way to infinite purity and infinite bliss; self-sacrifice is better
than self aggrandizement. He believed that Jainism is fit to be a world
religion because it stands for spirituality and culture not dogma. Jaina ethics aim at the cultivation of the
mind, the heart and the soul along the lines of truth, non-violence and
righteousness, so as to turn hatred into love, love into compassion and
compassion into social service.
The three jewels of Jainism, Tri-ratna, namely, Right faith (samyaka shraddha), Right knowledge (Samyaka Jnana) and Right conduct (Samyaka Acharna), underline the need for
the establishment of the moral law in society.
Jainism rejects the atheistic and materialistic perceptions of the Charvaka school of Indian philosophy since it believes that the goal of human life is not to attain
pleasure but to be perfect in every respect.
At the Chicago Parliament ( September 11)
he described Jainism as a faith ‘older than Buddhism, similar to it in ethics
but different from it in psychology.’ 5 His paper on Jaina philosophy
and ethics (September 25) delineated
the cosmology, canon, science, logic, epistemology and moral codes of Jainism in a masterly way. 6
He put forth two parallel but distinct
views in the Jaina tradition namely, Dravyarthik
naya which holds that the universe is
without beginning and end, and Paryarthika naya which holds that creation and destruction
take place every moment.
He divided the Jaina canon into two parts - Shruti dharma, revealed laws, and Charitra dharma, moral laws, which elevate character. He referred
to the nature of nine principles, six substances, six kinds of living beings and
four states of existence in the Jaina philosophy, explaining some of them in
detail. He described the soul as the divine element in all beings –
the element which knows, thinks and feels, but is different from matter which
is also eternal. As long as the soul is subject to transmigration, it undergoes
the process of evolution and involution. Moksha,
the state of final liberation, is achieved when the soul regains its purest form by relieving itself of the burden of karma and severing all connection with matter. The realized
ones look upon all living beings as upon themselves.
He explained the Jaina belief in eight types of karma
– law of cause and effect - and in the theory of reincarnation, widely supported by philosophers,
theologians, and prophets the world over, as it provides the raison d’etre of injustice and misery in the world. He asserted
that the Jaina prophets could
reveal the minutest divisions of living beings with their inner eye and envision ‘how many organs of sense minutest
animalcule has’, much before the discovery of microscope. He
informed the audience that there were works on biology, zoology, botany,
anatomy and physiology in the Jaina tradition, written centuries before the
birth of modern sciences. 7
He
rejected the common view upheld about the Jainas as atheists or agnostics. Although
the existence of a First cause or that of a creator-deity is absent in the
Jaina cosmological scheme, the Tirthankaras recognize the subtle essence underlying all substances,
‘conscious as well as unconscious, which becomes an eternal cause of all
modifications and is termed God.’ While the Brahmins recommend devotion (bhakti) and action (karma), and the Vedantists emphasise the path of knowledge (jnana) to reach the Ultimate
Reality, Jainism teaches that ‘ knowledge and religious observances’ are the means to obtain the highest
happiness.
In conclusion, he spoke of the panchamahavrata or five great vows of
ascetics, namely, ‘not to kill; not to lie; not to take that which is not
given; to abstain from sexual intercourse; to renounce all interest in worldly
things or to call nothing one’s own.’8 These vows which bear verisimilitude to the five Yamas- restraints-
in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, are regarded by the Jainas as means to attain the Supreme spiritual state of a Siddha
Parameshthin.
In his final address( September 27), Virchand
Raghavji Gandhi thanked the organizers
of the Parliament for their hospitality, kindness, ‘liberal spirit and
patience’ with which they heard the views of delegates from the orient.
However, in view of occasional notes of disharmony, Christian claims to
superiority over other religions, and some direct attacks on Hinduism and
Buddhism, he observed: ‘ If you will
only permit a heathen to deliver his message of
peace and love I shall only ask
you to look at the multifarious ideas presented to you in a liberal spirit and
not with superstition and bigotry, as the seven blind men did in the
elephant story.’ 9
As per the said story the blind men had
touched the different parts of an elephant’s body and quarreled
among themselves about its shape, size and features. He thus tried to establish that truth has
various dimensions; religions are divided by ignorance and bigotry, and the good in all faiths need to be recognized.
JAINA
CONTRIBUTION
After the Chicago Parliament , Virchand
Raghavji Gandhi went on lecture tour in different parts of America and England on invitation, visiting India in
between. In his various discourses and
writings, he explained how Jainism has enriched various disciplines like philosophy,
religion, literature and arts.
The Jaina contribution to the domain of metaphysics includes its concept of the
self existent and timeless Reality; its bheda-abheda doctrine which recognizes both different (bheda) and identical (abheda) perspectives, its nine
categories namely, jiva, living being
or soul; ajiva, non-living being; punya, good deeds, papa, evil deeds; ashrava,
influx of karma, bandha, bondage of karma, samvara, stoppage of inflow of karma; nirjara, eradication of karmic matter, and moksha, salvation; its six-fold division of dravyas, substances, namely jiva,
soul, pudgala, matter, dharma, principle of motion, adharma, principle of rest, akasha,
space ( together called panchastikaya)
and kala, time; its four-fold
division of souls– deva, gods, jivas, living beings, tiryaks, lower animals and the vegetable
kingdom and narakas, lower regions –
all subject to the law of karma, and so on.
The atomic theory of Jainism which
propounds that an atom (paramanu) is
indivisible and indestructible and has
colour, flavor and taste; that the aggregate of atoms (skandha) in various modes and combinations changes the quality and
taxonomy of objects, comes closer to the scientific view.
The Jaina theory of five kinds of knowledge namely, mati, ordinary cognition, shruti, testimony, avadhi, inner perception, manahparyaya, capability to read the mind of others, and kevala or pratyaksha jnana, perfect or
direct knowledge, adds a new dimension to Epistemology.
The seven modes of predication (saptabhangi), called also seven nayas or standpoints – syad asti (perhaps is), syad nasti (perhaps is not), syad asti-nasti (perhaps is and is not),
syad avaktavya ( perhaps
inexpressible), syad asti avaktavya
(perhaps is and is inexpressible), syad
nasty avaktavya (perhaps is not and is inexpressible), syad asti-nasti avaktavya (perhaps, is not and is inexpressible), have
contributed to the study of Logic.
The Jaina view of nonviolence as the
highest ideal of life is a great contribution to Ethics. Its concept of Moksha as a state of freedom which renders
infinite joy, infinite freedom, and infinite
bliss adds to the theology of
salvation. The rejection of dogma in
Jainism and the acceptance of different points of view
are the salient features of Jaina
ethos.
Jaina art as seen through its
iconography, sculptures, paintings, stupas – hemispherical structures - decorated
manuscripts, mystic diagrams, and temples
is aesthetic, meaningful, majestic and magnificent. Jainas have produced vast
literature on philosophy, logic, history, comparative religion, grammar, prosody,
mathematics, lexicography, astronomy,
art and other subjects in Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Prakrit.